The Fire in My Fathers Hands Essay Example for Free

The Fire in My Fathers Hands Essay When I was a kid, about 5 to 8 years old, my hands would always get cold whenever the surrounding air is chilly. My dad would always tell me to rub them together, like you would in order to make fire. And so I did it. I rubbed and rubbed and rubbed. My fingers grind against each other from the tips of my little fingers to the base of my palm, but none of this worked. My hands still are cold, stone cold. Then my dad said after watching me rub for a whole 3 minutes: You can stop rubbing your hands when they are warm again, as rubbing would make your skin raw. I replied: But theyre still cold. Then he told me to hold out my hand and he started rubbing warmth into my hands; his strong, rough hands massaging my palms, my fingers, then suddenly my hands are warm again. After a while, I wondered: will my hands ever become tough and strong like my fathers? Practice Till You Get Tired of It My Mom is my role model. I guess this is due to the fact that I used to scarcely see my Dad because he comes home really late; he still does, though not as late, while my Mother took care of me ever since she quit the job as the General Manager when I was in 2nd grade. She is the one who is there for me whenever I have a problem, like a robot on standby, but she is also a harsh whip with her discipline though she never hit me. My most notable memory of my Mom is when I sucked at math in 3rd grade. I dont know how to do a problem so naturally, I asked her. However, after she taught the same problem 4 times, I still didnt get it. I was afraid she would get mad, but she didnt and in the end when I finally got it, I asked her why she is so patient. She simply replied practice makes perfect, an old adage I hear very often to this day. The Playful Shadow Everyone in my family has different hair. My fathers, a hair like a bush or a vigilant meerkat or a comb. A comb with black and white bristles because my father is slowly aging. It stands tall and mighty nevertheless, and doesnt ever change no matter how many times you run your hand through the mass of black and white. Other times my father applies hair gel to his hair, though I dont see a point. After all, crew cuts dont have a lot of potential for shaping. In contrast though, my hair is like a playful shadow, flexible and could be shaped into anything. Its of medium length, though sometimes when I am too lazy or busy I dont pester my mother to take me to the hair salon in a nearby department store. Speaking of her, my mother has the smoothest hair in the family. Its silky and sleek almost all the time, and has a certain shine to it whenever light falls on her hair, like twinkling stars on a silent, dark night. Not The Usual It was around my mid-summer vacation. I went to my grandmothers in Taipei, but I stayed for a long time, about 2 weeks or so. I came back home eventually, but before the moment when I stepped through onto the white marble floor, I never realized the beautiful house that I considered as mundane was indeed quite nice. I immediately noticed the sunlight streaming through the tall windows that cover up a side of the spacious living room, as opposed to my grandmothers artificially lit house and the tiny space one is allowed to move in. You really have to pick your way carefully in order to not trip over something. Although this is mean for me to put it like this, especially since I have been accepting their hospitality for an extended period of time but after this time I learned to appreciate the place I live in. The next day, my mother started her usual sermons, Why dont you start doing your grammar workbook. Then I replied, But mother, its summer. Even if I finish it you wont give me any free time. Fine, you can have free time after you finish 5 pages in the workbook. Yes. I exclaimed. Then I thought to myself. Well, this is rare, mother is giving me free time. Home Ruler In German my name means home ruler. It means king. It is like the wind; strong, yet soothing. An energizing gust that one would welcome on a hot sunny day. It is like the symphonies that Beethoven conducted, vivid, strong symphonies. Henry was my fathers name and now I have it. Before that my fathers name is Eric, then he changed it to Chief during college years. But now he is Henry, and I am Henry Jr. On that lazy afternoon when he told me that he changed his name twice, I asked him why he wanted to be called Henry. He replied Because I like the sound of it. What?! You chose your name and my name only because you like the sound of it? Isnt there some kind of symbolism behind it like Chinese names do? I pressed. But he just simply said Nope. Personally though, I do not dislike my name. Its alright, though it could be confusing when people just say Henry when both Yu and I are present. Thats pretty much it, after all names arent good material for bullying anyways. All Alone On lazy days when Im bored, I daydream a lot. Just staring into space or look at the sky and the clouds or whatever that catches my intrest. I imagine various things, from the future, to the past. Sometimes I think of of the possibility of having a brother or sister since I am the only child in my house. I think of other people and their relationships with their siblings and sometimes I feel forlorn, because I never really had a person I can relate to at home. But other times when I see siblings fight I wonder if I would do the same. Chances are I would fight, be the peacemaker, or just let them go all over me. Perhaps I would try to maintain peace between me and my sibling. I suppose things get lively, crazy, and out of control sometimes when you have a sibling, but the more, the merrier right? Stop Judging! Shun is my old, old classmate, a classmate I had in 4th grade. He was a boy who had eyes that stare daggers and a posture or a physique that suggested he can fight well. I always took care to avoid him, for I am afraid of what he might do, especially since he got in a fight with my best friend, Kevin. The fight exploded suddenly with Kevin beaten down pretty badly. But in a strange twist of fate, I had to take the late bus with him, not to mention the small bus is very, very crowded. Time passed and passed, and eventually I had to go on the bus. It turns out that he isnt much of a bad person. I was apprehensive at first, but after a while I got the courage to ask him a few questions and we started talking. It was then I realized the true meaning of the saying dont judge a book by its cover. Party Pooper Rain, rain, go away. Go away so i can play I hate rainy days. The way it brings cool, humid air, and the way it forces me to stay indoors. The way it makes the skies dark, gloomy, and sometimes filled the air with static. It came when I went to Hualien the first time I went there. There wasnt much to do except to roam the department stores that was packed with refugees of the rain, just like my family and me. The rain prevented us from exploring Hualien Ocean Park, the amusement park I was so excited to go to, but the trip prematurely ended. We did stay in Hualien for an extra day though to compensate for the missing day, but that doesnt cover up the fact that the rain ruined half of my vacation. Just as it ruined the bicycling trip my dad and I planned to go on. And the trip to the Sun-Moon Lake. Oh, how I hate the rain. Different Things, Deep Meanings My mother tells me a lot of things. Family values, information, something about maintaing discipline, and many others. However, I find her small tales most intruguing. She once told me about a story about a kid and his mother. The story begins when the child was hit by his mother because he did something bad. Throughout his life, the child was always hit by his mother when he did something wrong. The strange thing is, the child never cried, not once when he was hit hard. He just held the tears in as the mother began her rentless attack, at least thats what I think she said, after all its been 3, 4 years. Anyway, the story goes on with the child finally reaches manhood, and the mother became an old lady, her hair streaked with dull gray, her hands and face wrinkly and her hands dont stop shaking. Then the child, now a man, did something to upset the mother again and of course the mother reaches to hit him as she did throughout her sons life. But this time when the blow landed, the son finally cried. Why? Because his mothers punch did not hurt, while in the past it hurt really bad. To this day, I still dont get the meaning of this little story. Work, Save, Relax I have a dream. A dream to be able to do anything i want. I feel tired studying for tests and doing homework all day. To go to school, back home like a an endless cycle which will likely change to go to company, return home when I get a job. Someday, Id like to travel to various countries, taste gorment food, and maybe even sip on wine. I want to see new things, experience them, and try them. Someday I will make this happen. When my dream turns to reality, this may be when my hair is all gone, streaked with whitish gray strands, and arms that are weakened by time, but I would be happy, happy that my dream is fulfilled. Being free of the bounds of duty, responsibility, and just be able to do anything I want is my lifetime goal. I have a dream. A dream to be able to do anything I want. I feel tired after studying and doing homework all day, and just doing work all day. Someday, Id like to just relax and enjoy, perhaps when I retire. I would travel to far-off coutries and taste gorment food.

Impact of Stress on Health and Well-being of the Individual

Impact of Stress on Health and Well-being of the Individual The objective of this assignment is to define holistic and define stress, and discuss the impact of stress on the health and wellbeing of an individual. Firstly the writer will look at holistic approaches and define stress. The writer will also look at how stress effects the individually biologically, psychologically and sociologically. Finally the writer will discuss approaches to managing stress. The term â€Å"Holistic or Holism† derives from the Greek word meaning entire, whole, total. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursing (2014) defines â€Å"Holistic† as an approach to patient care in which the psychological, physiological and social factors of the patient’s condition are taken into account, rather than just the diagnosed disease. Holistic medicine is not a separate medical or treatment method, but it is an alternative philosophy regarding the approach to health. This holistic nursing approach originated in the United States of America and was formally introduced to the United Kingdom in 1977 and was seen as an alternative approach nursing rather than the traditional orientated task approach. Florence Nightingale herself encouraged holistic care; she recognised how important the environment and a multi directional approach was, rather than a one- dimensional therapy process. According to Dossey (2008) Health is a multifaceted complex concept, it relates to an individual’s well-being in a given environment, and is defined by pathology and the traditional biomedical health approach, holistic care looks at treating the underlying causes and not just the superficial ones. Barker (2004) also states the holistic model of care is widely accepted in the field of nursing, it favours a comprehensive in-depth assessment of entirety rather than the medical approach which just studies the disease in the patient. The holistic care approach takes into consideration all the persons individual psychological, sociological and mental health needs. Every man, women and child consists of a body and mind, and any changes in a person’s life will eventually cause changes in their existence. Aggleton and Chalmers (2000) describe holism as the fundamental wholeness of human beings. Hogston and Simpson (1999) define the holistic nursing process as a systematic problem solving framework that enables the nurse to plan care accordingly targeting the specific needs of the individual. The holistic approach has two focal factors. The first factor treats the individual as a separate entity, secondly the holistic approach analyses the psychosomatic approach of a disease and magnifies it by putting the patient in a specific time, along with their needs and quality of life. Alfaro-LeFevre (1998) described the holistic nursing process as a five stage framework comprising of: Assessment: to collect data regarding health status and monitor for evidence of health problems. Diagnosis: to identify actual and potential health issues. Planning: to determine therapeutic interventions and achievable goals. Implementation: to put plans into action and observe response. Evaluation: to assess the outcomes, to check if goals have been achieved or whether changes need to be made. A holistic approach to health makes prevention vitally important as finding a cure, this continuous model of care can extend over an individual’s life. The holistic approach drives to manipulate fundamental determinants of health that occur and this offers an upstream attack on threats to health. This may be the best approach and outcome in coping with the unhealthy lifestyles and the ageing and longevity of life in the population in the 21st century. These determinants contribute to a rise in stress, which can contribute to a rise in other diseases such as heart disease, cancer, stroke and other long standing mental health problems. The Oxford Dictionary of Nursing defines stress as â€Å"any factor that threatens the health of the body or has an adverse effect on its functioning, such as injury, disease, overwork, or worry. Constant stress brings about changes in the balance of hormones in the body. Selye (1976) describes stress as a unifying concept; it is a non-specific r esponse to a huge variety of stimuli. According to Edwards and Cooper (1988) stress should be discussed in terms of stimuli, responses and the relationship between them. Stress is actually part of modern life; at times it may become a useful tool and serve a purpose. Stress can motivate you for promotion at work, or push you to run that last mile of a marathon. Nevertheless if you lose control and dont get to grips with your stress, it can become a long-term problem and it can have a severe detrimental effect and interfere with your job, family life, and health. The causes of stress differ for every individual. Everyone has different stress triggers; we are open to various amounts of different stimuli. Beckwith (1996) states defining stress, its causes and symptoms are just as complicated. It is often characterized as a reaction to modern and social factors, stress is a disruption in an individual’s physiological and psychological homeostasis that force them to deviate from u sual functioning in interaction with their jobs and work environment. Stress is defined by Auerbach (1996) as a three way relationship between demands on a person, that person’s feelings about those demands and their ability to cope with those demands. Stress can effectively destroy the quality of life for the individual, his or her family and for society as a whole, it has become as dangerous as pollution to modern society Srivastava (1999). Some people thrive in the pressure cooker of life. Stress is a personalized experience and can vary extensively even in the same identical situation for different reasons. Some individuals can perform and complete many duties at the same time and have a list of things to do that would stretch and overpower most of us. Every individual has different stress triggers. How person A copes to how person B copes is completely different. A simple example of a daily stressor is the journey to work, college or school. Person A who is sitting in th e traffic, will sit and become very angry at the long delay, but Person B sitting in the next car accepts that there is lots of traffic and copes with the situation. The same stressor or stimuli, but two completely different reactions to the same situation. Stress level will differ based on your personality and how you respond to situations. The same situation can arise in any individuals life, whether it be moving to a new home, a heavy workload, too much responsibility, working long hours, studying for exams or simply leaving the house. Snyder, Lefcourt and Herbert (2001) state, Stress resides neither in the situation nor in the person, it depends on a transaction between the two. Barlow (2000) states suffering from stress, anxiety or phobias can disrupt daily routines, limit work efficiency, reduce self-esteem, and place a strain on relationships. Individuals will do whatever they can to avoid the uncomfortable and often-terrifying feelings of anxiety. Bourne (2011) supports Barl ow by stating people with specific phobias, or strong irrational fear reactions, work hard to avoid common places, situations, or objects even though they know theres no threat or danger. The fear may not make any sense, but they feel powerless to stop it. Specific phobias according to Sylver, Lilienfeld and Laprairie (2011) can cause stress, the threat of a terrorist attack, global warming, dogs, cats, bees, wasps, spiders, germs, heights, driving, public transport, flying, dental or medical procedures, and even elevators. People with phobias realize that their fear is irrational, and even thinking about it can often cause extreme anxiety. According to Beidel Turner (1998) while some phobias develop in childhood, most seem to arise unexpectedly, usually during adolescence or early adulthood. Their onset is usually sudden; you have no control over these events and they may occur in situations that previously did not cause any discomfort or anxiety. All of these factors can lead to stress. Stress is a worrisome illness. Stress has numerous faces, and sidles into our lives from many directions. No matter what the causes are, stress can put the body and mind under extreme pressure. Constant or chronic stress can have real physical effect on the body. It weakens the immune system, increasing the individual’s vulnerability. Stress engulfs the body and saturates it with stress hormones. The heart thumps, muscles tense, breathing quickens and the stomach churns. 1

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay

The Concepts Of Participation In Governments Politics Essay Participation is a concept that has been continually contested within the academic literature. The term has sparked a lot of debate and become an important concept relating to democracy and justice. Participation has been characterised as a vehicle for enabling citizen interaction and citizen power. Cornwall (2008) has described participation as a malleable concept, suggesting that the concept can denote itself to any situation in which people are involved. This however has created a significant limitation for the applicability of participation in natural resources management. Passive participation has increasingly become more evident within environmental management through processes such as tokenism and consultation. The following essay will examine and critically evaluate the different typologies of participation. Due to the variety of typologies proposed within the literature, only the frameworks proposed by Sherry Arnstein, Jules Pretty and Sarah White will be critically evaluate d. Environmental examples of participation will then be illustrated in order to determine the extent to which participation as a malleable concept is a strength or limitation for natural resource management. Sherry Arnstein provided one of the first models of public participation. Arnsteins Ladder of Participation was published in 1969, and sought to summarize the context of American public planning at the time (Bishop and Davis, 2002). Public participation and power sharing during this time consisted of an us and them approach (ref). At the centre of this philosophy, the ideals of democracy were broken. Arnstein suggested that power had not equally been distributed amongst all members of society (ref). As a result, Arnstein advocated for a framework in which the planning process adequately took into consideration the ideals and opinions of public citizens (Hayward et al., 2004). Arnsteins model comprised of a ladder, which metaphorically denoted levels of citizen participation. Each ascending level of the ladder, described as rungs, characterised a level of influential power citizens could have within the planning process (Arnstein, 1969). Arnsteins ladder ultimately consisted of eight rungs, therefore, describing eight typologies of participation. At the bottom of Arnsteins ladder is Manipulation. Arnstein described this level of participation as an unauthentic form of citizen participation. At this level of the rung, power graspers such as politicians were considered by Arnstein to deform the processes of public relations (Litva et al., 2002). Arnstein suggested that citizens were often placed on advisory boards with the purpose of authorities attempting to educate them about particular issue (ref). Arnstein believed that this level of participation was somewhat illusionary, in the sense that minority groups were often targeted and manipulated by power holders (ref). Much of the decision making powers still remain within the hands of authorities, and ethnic groups or special interest groups were simply forced to comply with the decision that had already been made (Whitman, 1994). The next rung on Arnsteins ladder is a form of participation labelled as Therapy. Therapy is advocated by Arnstein as another form of illusionary ci tizen participation. Arnstein suggested that authoritarians such as mental health experts, social workers and politicians view those as powerless as mentally incapable (Shier, 2006). Therefore, making citizens engage in sessions of therapy and reform. Arnstein suggested that what made this form of citizen participation illusionary is that an extensive amount of spotlight is placed on curing citizens of their existing perceptions or opinions (McDonald, 1988). Less effort is focused on changing the power struggles that exist within societies which shape the current perceptions and opinions evident within specific classes of people (ref). Infroming is the next rung on Arnsteins Ladder. Arnstein characterised this level of participation as a way of legitimizing public participation through informing people of their rights and responsibilities (ref). However, more often than never, the flow of information had predominately focused on officials providing citizens with information through the use of various media, newsletters and reports (ref). This one way flow of information often did not provide citizens with an opportunity to voice their concerns, or provide officials with any feedback (ref). Therefore, ultimately decreasing the level of influence citizens are able to exert upon planning projects. The fourth rung on Arnsteins Ladder is Consultation. This is arguably the first instance in which the concept of consultation had been used within a planning context (ref). To further legitimize the process of public participation, Arnstein suggested that the opinions of citizens needed to be taken into account (ref). Meetin gs, public hearings and stakeholder reports had become the most common forums for enabling consultation amongst specific groups of people. Consultation consists more of just asking citizens about their views. The process is only valuable if further work is undertaken to adequately change policy structures in order the meet the needs of citizens (ref). Genuine consultation would therefore, consist of systematic meetings which can provide an open loop of communication for both authorities and citizens (ref). The Partnership rung on Arnsteins Ladder portrays the redistribution of powers amongst citizens and authorities. Ideally, at this level of participation, the ability to make decisions is left in the hands of both the public and private sector (ref). Partnership can be seen to effective when the citizens themselves are equipped with resources and finances. This can help community groups to barter with politicians and allow citizens to have an influence over project plans (ref). Citizen power increases further up Arnsteins ladder, with Delegated Power being a form of participation where citizens dominate the decision making process (ref). In this instance, the public would have assumed full responsibility and power over a specific project or plan. Such a circumstance is often reached when the public themselves hold significant trump cards, and are prepared to take full accountability for the outcomes of a particular programme (ref). The ultimate form of citizen power is characterised b y Arnstein as Citizen Control (more). Arnsteins Ladder provides a good explanation of the interactions between citizens and authorities. Though simplistic, the model has become an influential pillar within debates surrounding participation. Arnsteins metaphorical depiction of participation as power has influenced policy processes across the globe. Participation as evolved as an important mechanism for stakeholder engagement and community involvement (ref). Since the publication of the model in the late 1960s, many criticisms regarding Arnsteins typologies of participation have arisen (Lane, 2005). Arnsteins typology attempts to highlight the differences between the powerless and the powerful. It has been asserted that Arnstein does not consider the obstacles which may become apparent in achieving different levels of participation (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006; more). Arnstein (1969) has suggested that there are obstacles that need to be overcome by both the citizens and the authorities. Authorities for instance need to overcome obstacles such as racism and be willing to shift the scales of power (Arnstein, 1969). Citizens in contrast need a knowledge base and resources to facilitate a strong and collective standing within society (Arnstein, 1969). Critics have also suggested that Arnsteins ladder may not be a realistic representation of participation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Arnstein categorised participation into eight rungs. In the real world however, there may be several more levels of participation occurring within society (Arnstein, 1969; Collins and Ison, 2006). Furthermore, the boundary between each category of participation may not be as distinctive as a step on a ladder (Arnstein, 1969). Tritter and McCallum (2006) have also suggested that Arnstein assumes that a hierarchical element exists within participation, which is in fact untrue. Arnsteins model suggests that citizen control is the ultimate goal for participation. Arnstein has neglected the possibility that often citizens may take part in the decision making process for a range of reasons. Arnsteins Ladder implies that if citizen control is not achieved, then there is an apparent failure within the participatory process (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Bishop and Davis (2002) suggest that this linear relationship between the levels of participation suggests a false sense of notions with regard to policies. As Bishop and Davis (2002) argue, Arnsteins Ladder suggests that variations only occur between the parties engaged with participation, and the policies that exist within societies remain constant and uninfluential. Arnsteins framework ultimately does not place any emphasis on the importance of communication, fe edback loops or the different perceptions that shape peoples views on a particular situation (Tritter and McCallum, 2006). Nonetheless, Arnsteins Ladder provides us with the image that participation has contrasting degrees and levels within a planning context. It is therefore important to examine and understand other models of participation that are evident within the literature. Pretty (1995) has suggested that the concept of participation has different meanings for different groups of people. Pretty (1995) has put forward a more comprehensive framework to characterise participation. Prettys typology of participation consists of both detail and critique (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Pretty conceptualises participation within a local context, and takes into consideration the distributions of power and interests of stakeholders. Therefore, in theory, Pretty intends to offer different interpretations with regards to the concept of participation (ref). Pretty has developed a framework of participation that distinguishes between seven typologies. The first of these types is Manipulative Participation. In this typology, citizens have no decision making ability or voice (ref). The voices of citizens are often undermined, and the flow of information and communication is exclusive to a group of professionals (ref). The second typology is Passive Participation. Within this typology, authoritarians will often announce plans of a project or the outcomes of decisions that have already been established. Citizens only participate by being told about what has already been decided by the authorities (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Participation by Consultation is the third typology identified by Pretty. In this form of participation, citizens are consulted with by authorities (ref). Pretty notes that within this type of participation, professionals, experts and authorities will agree to hear the views of citizens and other interest groups; however, t here is no obligation for these views to be ultimately taken on board (Pretty, 1995). The fourth typology identified by Pretty is Participation for Material Incentives. Citizen participation is more active within this typology. Citizens participate by contributing resources or time in exchange for other material objects (ref). Pretty uses the example of farmers, whose fields and labour are used by experts during experiments or trials. The farmer however, remains inactive with regards to the project or programme. Yet, the farmer is still considered to be participating. Pretty acknowledges that once incentives are ended, the likelihood of any participation continuing decreases (ref). Functional Participation is described by Pretty as citizens forming groups in order to specific objectives of a project or plan (Pretty, 1995). Citizens once again only participate once all major decisions have been made by the professionals or experts. Local action is however, initiated by these citizen groups, therefore activating the practices and structures within neighbourhood communit ies (Juarez and Brown, 2008). Interactive Participation is where citizens venture in joint analysis. Pretty defines interactive participation as when multiple methodologies and several objectives are synthesized to create a common goal or understanding (Juarez and Brown, 2008). In this form of participation, citizens are given the power to maintain the practices and structures established within communities (ref). The last typology identified by Pretty is Self Mobilisation. In this, citizens are active participants, taking initiative to make changes independently to any external institution or group of experts (Pretty, 1995). Collaborative actions by citizens strengthen community bonds, as well as challenging any existing inequalities in power distributions (Pretty, 1995). Prettys classifications appear to cover most of the relevant forms of participation. Several limitations however are evident within Prettys description. Pretty suggests that low level of participations are enforced by external actors. Passive participation for instance, does not only occur in instances where people have been told what to do (ref). The participants themselves can increase the likelihood of passive participation due to significant shortages in their own resources (ref). For instance, citizens may lack a sound knowledge base about a particular issue. Therefore, even a well intended and interactive project may still fail due to insufficiencies on the part of citizens (ref). This further suggests that in some cases, a lack of participation cannot always be blamed on external actors or the design of a programme. Thus, the context in which participation occurs is a sensitive and significant variable to take into consideration (ref). Prettys typology also consists of several overlapping classifications. This makes it difficult to grasp a complete definition of participation as each typology is connected to the next (ref). For instance, the idea of manipulation is not exclusive to Prettys Participation through Manipulation typology. Manipulation is also manifested within other typologies such as participation for material objects or functional participation (ref). Pretty also assumes that a minimum amount of participation is occurring within each level of typology. This is problematic analytically. Pretty perhaps intended to only consider a framework in which participation is considered. In doing so however, a typology of non participation is lost in analysis. It had been argued that manipulation can be considered as a form of non participation (Hart, 1992 cited in Pretty, 1995). This however is problematic as even a small amount of participation can still influence the decision making process, making it impossibl e for non participation to occur (ref). Both Arnsteins and Prettys typologies are normative in nature, suggesting that the ideal form of participation is only located at the end of a specific spectrum (ref). These two models highlight the subtle effects of political affairs that are embedded within the participation debate. Questions surrounding control and power arise from participatory typologies, thus making it important to consider the underlying politics surrounding participation (ref). Whites (1996) typology of participation starts to deal with issues, and begins to consider the various stresses actors engaging in participation experience. Whites typology of participation is more complex. The framework used by White explores the many dimensions and interests involved within the process of participation (White, 1996). The identities, context and interests of both individuals and groups are also explored throughout the typologies (White, 1996). Whites typology of participation is separated into categories in which one can easily identify situations where opportunities are created, or power distributions are established (White, 1996). Whites framework is complex, thus is it important to note that participation itself is characterised as a dynamic process which does not remain constant (White, 1996). White suggests that circumstances of conflict and tension arise when one set of goals or ideas are prioritised over another, mirroring the power relations that underline the processes of participation (White, 1996). Whites framework of participation is divided into four types. The first of these is nominal category participation. Within this typology, participation is considered as a form of information sharing and participant contribution in a project. This form of participation is ideally functional in form, and acts to also legitimize external actors (Ref). Consultation is also highlighted in Whites typology within instrumental participation. In this form of participation, White suggests that consultation is practised and utilized by external parties to create efficiency (White, 1996). Citizens however, see this form of participation in terms of a cost, as their contribution to a programme results in a sense of lost opportunity for the citizens themselves (ref). In representative participation, White sees participations as active decision makers. This form of participation gives a voice to the participants, allowing them to influence the outcome of projects and promote sustainability (White, 1996). Active and dynamic participation ultimately leads to Whites last category: transformative participation. This form of participation sparks self mobilization, allowing participants to assertively find the solutions to their own problems (White, 1996). Overall Whites model is particularly useful in identifying the costs and benefits different groups of people experience with different forms of participation. There is however some limitations also associated with Whites conceptualization of participation. Ref has suggested that Upon analysis of the different typologies it is evident within the literature that Arnstein, Pretty and White have all contributed towards the concept of participation. The concept however, still remains largely unknown within the literature despite the contribution of these academics and more. Cornwall (2008) has suggested that because of this, participation has become embedded with an element of malleability, allowing it to mean different things to different people, in different places. The conceptual origins of participation have been rooted in a planning and political context. Ideas however, such as collective action, consultation and shared decision making have subsequently spilled over into an environmental management context. Natural resources are often at the centre of social tensions and conflict within communities. Such settings involve the presence of several actors all attempting to influence the many decisions associated with natural resource management (ref). The academic literature surrounding natural resources management has suggested that community members and stakeholders are often unable to contribute towards environmental decisions (Rowe and Frewer, 2000). Typically within natural resources management, scientists have primarily been identified as experts within the community, and have controlled the flow of information in the context of policy development (Jasanoff, 1994).This has been argued by some academics as problematic, suggesting that the views and opinions of the ordinary citizen may be influential for environmental management (Stirling, 2006). Cortner and Shannon (1993) has therefore, suggested that participation can be utilized as a vehicle to engage with public expression, and increase the transfer of knowledge and deliberative democracy (Stirling, 2008). Participation has been recognized as an important mechanism in achieving optimum environmental outcomes (Collins and Evans, 2002). Through participation, perspectives, v alues and opinions of different stakeholders and citizens can be identified and incorporated into environmental objectives (Cortner and Shannon, 1993). Participation within natural resource management can provide opportunities for stakeholder meetings and public consultations, increasing the scope of opportunity for non experts within the community to shape environmental decision making (Landy, 1993). Participation can therefore, be seen as a forum within which local knowledge, values and norms are integrated with conventional scientific knowledge. As illustrated above, the concept of participation is one that is malleable. Various forms of participation have been characterised by academics, leading one to believe that there is no one correct way of describing such a process. Several examples within the environmental literature highlight the malleability of participation. Increases in the adoption of local knowledge and collaborative management initiatives are all evidence of participatory methods in resource management. Kakadu National Park for instance is a primary example of where the integration of local knowledge in environmental management has been achieved through participatory methods (Hill and Press, 1993). During the 1960s a partnership was enacted between the indigenous community and non indigenous community of Australias Northern Territory to manage the Kakadu National Park. The area had been classified as a World Heritage site; therefore territorial environmental management objectives were promptly established to p rotect the areas archaeological heritage (Hough, 2009). Tension and conflict however arose when government officials attempted to solely manage the regions of the park. Approximately 50% of the park was within Aboriginal territory, therefore, local communities swiftly petitioned to become involved with the decision making process (Lane, 2001). The sustainable practices associated with the local Aboriginal communities, coupled with thousands of years of local knowledge led authorities to pursue joint management of the area (Hill and Press, 1993). Interchangeable and transferable knowledge from both scientists and the local communities were collated to establish management objectives for the native flora and fauna located within the regions of the park (Howitt, 2003). The national park today is managed by traditional Aboriginal members and the Australian National Director of Parks (Hill and Press, 2003). Participatory methods are also evident within New Zealand through collaborative management approaches. The Environmental Performance Indicator (EPI) project was established as New Zealands first indigenous sustainable monitoring programme (Jollands, 2006). Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) note that Maori people are an important community within New Zealand, owning both a considerable amount of the countrys resources, as well as holding a strong political standing in comparison to other ethnic groups. Various international and national obligations have driven the need for Maori participation in New Zealand environmental management (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Internationally, declarations such as the Draft Declaration of Rights for Indigenous People (United Nations, 1993) and the Declaration on the Health and Survival of Indigenous Peoples have driven the need to foster indigenous practices and beliefs (United Nations, 2002). Within New Zealand, internal drivers such as the Treaty o f Waitangi have also supported the recognition of indigenous rights (Jollands, 2006). The Treaty of Waitangi provides the foundation upon which bicultural ties and partnerships in New Zealand are established (Orange, 1990). The EPI project was established by the Ministry of Environment as a way of incorporating Maori knowledge into environmental monitoring. For many years, Maori people have had an intrinsic relationship with the natural environment (Barlow, 1991). As Harmsworth and Tipa (2005) note, Maori have had a specific perception on environmental management, consisting of stewardship and holism. Such a framework has assisted Maori people in developing interpretations of the environment that help facilitate their practices and beliefs surrounding environmental use, degradation and sustainability (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). The EPI project was conceived as an opportunity for Maori to contribute towards sustainable monitoring in a way that acknowledged their traditions and norms. A Maori Environmental Monitoring Group (MEMG) was introduced by the Ministry of Environment as a panel of Maori environmental experts. The members on this panel provided the EPI project leaders with information about Ma ori environmental perspectives, objectives and goals (Maori Environmental Monitoring Group, 1998). The MEMG were given the forum to contribute towards environmental decision making on issues such as wetland restoration, biodiversity and marine protection. Such a process allowed Maori people to move towards a more active role within environmental management, and allow them to influence the outcomes of the EPI project through a more collaborative approach (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though participation can occur in a variety of forms as a mechanism for enabling social interaction within environmental decisions, some critics have argued against this (Rossi, 1997; Sanders, 1997; Collins and Evans, 2002; Campbell and Currie, 2006). Critics have questioned the capability of ordinary community members in comprehending complex scientific dilemmas (Sanders, 1997). Furthermore, others critics have also suggested that the term participation is often used to disguise practices in which citizens are simply briefed or consulted with (Sanders, 1997; Rossi, 1997). A fundamental limitation associated with the malleability of participation is that a false sense of citizen involvement can often be created through tokenism (Campbell and Currie, 2006). Specific groups of people, or member of an indigenous group for instance are purposely included around the environmental decision making table by politicians. Such an act appears to provide the image of fairness on the part of gove rnments or experts; however, in reality many of these representatives still remain uninfluential (Collins and Evan, 2002). The EPI project for instance ultimately received widespread criticism for its apparent attempts at tokenism (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Though a Maori panel was set up to inform the EPI directors on indigenous perspectives, the members of the MEMG were unable to take part in the final decision making stages (Clarkson et al., 2002). Furthermore, as Jollands and Harmsworth (2008) notes, in hindsight, Maori were also unable to fully comprehend the scientific components of the project, making their ability to actively take part in the projects efforts futile. Issues of tokenism and passive participation have been identified within some of the models analyzed above. Arnstein, Pretty and White all acknowledge that within the scope of participation there are varying levels of how active participation is. The malleability of participation therefore, serves more so as a limitation for the concept rather than a strength. Though the concept of participation has the ability and freedom to t ransform into a range of meanings, its lack of a concentrate definition can simply be used to describe any process involving people (Cornwall, 2008). Participation has been proven to occur within a variety of contexts and engage with several different groups of people. The issue however, is that active participation is not apparent in all of these situations. Consultation for instance has been disguised within many circumstances as a form of participation. Its use has been prevalent within environmental management especially as a way to engage with important stakeholders and interest groups. Consultation however, as demonstrated with the case of the EPI project, is simply another name to describe tokenism (Clarkson et al., 2002). The actual interests of citizens are ignored within programme objectives, yet such practices are accepted and continued because they are categorised under the heading of participation (Jollands, 2006). As Gardiner and Parata (1999) suggests, there was a severe lack of clarity regarding the EPI programme. The information presented to Maori at the consultation meetings was often disorganized and prepared in a manner that was insensitive to Maori world views and customs. Therefore it is not surprising that Maori communities were confused about the definition of natural indicators and the science used in western forms of environmental monitoring (Ministry for the Environment, 1998). The EPI programme had demonstrated some attempts to include Maori in environmental monitoring. Critics have generally suggested that the EPI programme was superficial because the MfE was not willing to hand over control over resources to the MEMG (Jollands and Harmsworth, 2008). Due to such criticisms, the MfE had begun to reduce its focus to involve Maori in environmental monitoring. Much of the government and Ministrys efforts to include Maori and nurture indigenous monitoring methods had dissolved after the completion of the EPI programme (Downs and Clarkson, 2000). The EPI programme presented several issues that highlighted the initial difficulties of incorporating Maori in environmental monitoring. The MfE essentially set up the EPI programme with the intention of including a range of perspectives from important stakeholders. While its intentions were sound, the programme ultimately disallowed for the participation from other groups or individuals because EPI project leaders were unwilling to share power over resources, funding and decision making (Clarkson et al., 2002). The failures associated with the EPI programme can also be attributed to the principles under which the project was initiated. From the onset, western scientific notions and environmental thinking provided the basis for the programme. Therefore from the beginning issues in attempting to incorporate local knowledge should have been conceivable (Downs and Clarkson, 2000) Arnsteins Ladder is one of the first frameworks within the academic literature which characterises the different typologies of participation. Arnsteins typology of participation within a planning context provided an important pillar within the literature for characterising different stages of participation. Since Arnsteins framework, several other authors such Pretty and White have developed other various typologies to characterise participation. Upon evaluation it is clear that participation cannot be situated within one clear definition. Arnstein, Pretty and White all offer valuable interpretations for charactering participation. Like any framework, each of these authors typologies is limited by certain constraints. Arnsteins ladder has been criticised as being over simplistic and normative in nature. Prettys typology of participation is more detailed, and considers the interests of all the actors involved within the process of participation. Prettys framework however, consists of too many overlapping typologies, making it harder to distinguish between specific classifications of participation. Whites typology of participation . As Cornwall (2008) has suggested, the concept of participation is malleable, denoting itself to almost any form of social interaction between groups of people. Participation has been suggested within the environmental literature as an important mechanism for generating appropriate environmental outcomes. Participation within natural resource management however, has been used to mask instances of tokenism and passive participation. The malleability of participation is ultimately a hindrance. People can transform the definition of participation to describe a variety of social processes occurring within a society. A limitation to this however, is that the term can be applied to cover up processes such as tokenism and consultation, which are ultimately processes which promote non participation or passive participation.

Budget Deficit & National Debt :: essays research papers

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the short- and long-term effects of current budget deficits and the nation debt. In order to do this; I first had to find out exactly what they were. I will also discuss whether I think the government should operate with a balanced budget. Budget deficit is the amount by which total government spending is more than government income during a specified period; the amount of money which the government has to raise by borrowing or currency emission in order to make up for the shortfall in tax revenues. National debt denotes the total sum of the outstanding debt obligations of a country's central government. I discovered that many people use the term somewhat more broadly to refer to the total indebtedness of all levels of government, including regional and local governments and sometimes also the indebtedness of government owned business entities such as local transit and communications systems or nationalized industries as well. The national debt represents the accumulated total of all the government budget deficits of past years, less the accumulated total of all the government budget surpluses of past years. In the United States, the national debt consists almost entirely of interest-bearing "IOU" instruments that are usually re-sellable on organized financial markets such as, for example, U.S. bonds, U.S. treasury notes, and U.S. treasury bills. These IOUs are originally purchased from the Treasury by private individuals, private corporations, insurance companies, pen sion funds and banks (both inside the United States and outside its borders), and the Treasury then uses the money it raised to bridge its spending gap when its budget is in deficit. The Treasury also sells IOUs to other Federal agencies that operate so-called trust funds -- primarily the Social Security Administration and other Federal retirement programs. The complication here is that since this is money that the government "owes to itself," it is not counted as part of the national debt in any realistic system of accounting. I find this to be really strange. Money to pay the annual interest owed to the owners of the government's debt instruments has to be provided through appropriations in every year's Federal budget. These interest payments on the national debt constitute as one of the largest spending categories in the budget. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an estimate of the total money value of the entire final goods and services produced in a given one-year period using the factors of production located within a particular country's borders.

Meaning of life Essay -- essays research papers

The True Meaning of Life What is the meaning of life? Well known Greek philosphers such as Socrates and Plato believed that our purpose in this life was to gain knowledge in preparation for the next life. Other Philosophers such as Epicurus believed that pleasure is the main goal in life. After giving these ideas lots of thought, I have come to my own conclusion that the true meaning of life is far more complex than either of these; far too complex for any human to fully comprehend. In fact these two different philosophies are only part of the grand picture. If it were that easy for men to figure out our lives wouldn't be so messed up now. The meaning of life revolves around many different things. I think these things include: self-understanding, development of mind and soul, and an afterlife. According to Epicurus, pleasure was the meaning of life. His ideas of life were completely opposite of Plato. Epicurus, in my opinion was a little bit niave and narrow minded in his view on the subject. He would say that the meaning of likfe was to experience pleasure until the end of your existence. He did not believe in an afterlife or that a person had a soul that lived forever. He just thought when you are gone that's it. I disagree with all of that because I have many religious beliefs from which I derive the meaning of life. One of these beliefs is that there is life after death, and that there is one supreme being of the universe. This goes back to Aristotle's first mover theory. I would however agree that life is a balancing act between pain and pleasure; or good and evil. You can't have one without the other. For every thing in existence there is always something of opposition. Another ancient Greek philosopher was Socrates. Socrates said "the unexamined life is not worth living." I agree with this in a sense that if you can't look back at your life and be proud of your accomplishments, then everything that you ever did was in vain. You have to be able to look at the mistakes you have made and be able to learn from that or you are doomed to repeat those mistakes. Maybe on a deeper level Socrates might have been talking about analyizing the purpose of one's life. This in my opinion is just as important. I feel that in order for me to succeed in life I ha... ... of these different philosophers are not necessarily inaccurate, just incomplete. All peices to a puzzle that I have no way of fully figuring out. Socrates spoke of a higher good to be achieved. Nobody has seemed to accomplish this yet in life. There are so many obstacles that we face as we try to achieve a higher good. Many of these are based in the fact that we are human beings, and because of that are flawed by the ways of our culture. Things such as self-doubt, worry, ignorance, and the values put into our heads since the day we were born all are road blocks on our way to a higher level. Also being human beings makes vulnerable to the ways of the world around us, so it is not easy to block these things out of our lives. In a summary I believe this life to be stage in which we are to develop our minds, bodies, and souls to their highest potential in preparation for the afterlife. A person living by this philosophy would probably become a genius or great thinker. But like Eupic ures, Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato I could only form my own opinions of the subject. There isn't anyway for me to figure out whether I am right or wrong. Only God could ever really know the true meaning.

How to Motivate Fred Maiorino Essay

Fred Maiorino was employed by Schering-Plough for 35 years and on July 19, 1991 he was terminated. Fred was terminated because the lack of motivation he has once Jim Reed was hired. The factors that inhibit Jim Reed from motivated Fred Maiorino are lack of leadership, lack of goals, and lack of an effective employee performance review. Leadership Jim Reed fails to motivate Fred because of the unsuccessful role as leader. A successful leader has the ability to manage and supervise the performances of their employees. (Kacmar, Carlson, Harris 2013). These authors describe several leadership styles but the most effective in motivating employees is transformational leadership style. The transformational leadership style inspires employees by establishing a work environment that is motivating and invigorating (Kacmar, Carlson, Harris 2013). Motivating employees initiate them to believe in organizations ambitions. The transformation leadership technique encourages and motivates employees to be mindful of the significance of their role within the company. The authors explain a transformation leader that stimulates and motivates employees has the ability to achieve astonishing outcomes and improve their leadership capability. They also assist in developing and strengthening employees. They are effective in overcoming defiance among the employees by instilling passion, strength and cooperation between employees and establishing a set of standards to follow. Leaders must demonstrate ethics, honesty, beliefs and trust to establish a positive work atmosphere so employees will be motivated to do their best. (Pryor, Singleton, Taneja, & Humphreys, 2010) A leader that motivates allows an employee to feel confident and appreciated for their work. Employees want to believe that they are valued and respected by their managers. Transformational leadership significantly enhances the competence leaders have to impact an increase in collaboration among employees. According to Schuh, Zhang, & Tian (2013) the end result of transformational leadership is â€Å"uniformly positive†. Transformational leaders believe employees are a valued asset instead of, just an employee. Employees should be involved in making decisions. Transformational leaders should be able to listen and have the ability to communicate with employees. A transformational leader will allow employees to disprove of ideas and  offer new suggestions. Employee motivate and morale will increase with the continually use of the transformational leadership style. Jim Reed should have adopted a transformational leadership style to motivate Fred Mariono. Goal Setting Jim Reed’s lack of goals contributes to the failure of motivating Fred. Goal setting is a tool that can be used to motivate employees, allowing them to feel important and valued as an employee. (Latham 2004) Efficient goal setting is force of performance. According to Locke & Latham (2002), the goal setting theory emphasizes that employees given precise goals than being told â€Å"do your best† The more successful attempts an employee has a obtaining their goal, the higher their job satisfaction will be. Setting goals for employees instill purpose and meaning to their job and allows them to challenge each other. Achieving goals increase employee’s interest, enhanced sense of personal efficiency, and pride in job performance. (Latham 2004) The importance of goals to employees influences the commitment to the goal. Goals are regulated by aptitude, commitment, feedback, difficulty, and situational elements. (Barsky 2008) An employee’s success in accomplishing stimulating but obtainable goals is directly correlated with positive and valued results. The higher the significance of the expected results for the employee, the higher the goal commitment to achieve it (Latham 2004). Once the goal is set, it is the employee’s assessment that will govern the level of performance (Latham, 2004). Specific goals set for Fred would have challenged, motivated, and increased his level of performance Performance Evaluation The failure of implementing an effective performance evaluation contributed to not motivating Fred. Jim Reeds method could be described as unintended outcome.(Van De Mieroop, Vrolix 2014) that is obtained from unacceptable performance ratings. Performance evaluations should be comprised of principles that determine the level of performance and a valuation to determine the achievements of the employee. An effective performance evaluation will clearly state employee’s expectations and standards. A performance evaluation review should not be based on historical factors. The purpose of performance reviews should focus on the future. (Van DE  Mieroop, Vrolix 2014) The most effective way to increase performance is by direct feedback (Ahmed, Sultan, Paul, Azeen 2013). The key motives for lack of performance can be accredited to lack of managerial success due to the lack of manager’s direction and feedback to employees. .(Yadav, Sushil, Sagar 2014) Leaders need to make employees aware of their responsibilities, obligations to the company and their expectation and then offer continuous feedback. Employees need to be made aware of the progress of their performance levels. (Yadav, Sushil, Sagar 2014) Many studies have revealed that most performance appraisals do not meet the company’s expectations because it emphasis the weaknesses of the employees. This has a tendency to make employees very defensive about the negative focus on their weaknesses. Along with distrust, negative feedback can deter performance, making the performance review ineffective for developing an employee. Jim Reed’s lack of an effective performance evaluation played a role in the termination of Fred. Recommendations Jim Reed needs to adopt a transformational leadership style. Employee ‘s level of performance is positively impacted when transformational leadership is applied. There are four transformational leadership approaches to increase productivity, increase motivation, and decrease turnover. (Zhu, Akhtar 2014) The first approach is to for leaders to set a superior example. This gains the leader respect and trust from employees. They are able to motivate, create change and boost the interest of employees. Second approach is leaders that inspire and are motivated themselves have the ability to motivate employees to be dedicated to the company’s goals. Leaders will also have the ability to encourage their employees to work together and obtain goals and increase their level of performance. (Baca Walker 2013) The third approach is that challenging employees intellectually will stimulate and encourage creativity and originality. Doing this, will able employees to think decisively and develop problem solving skills to assist the company in becoming more effective. The last approach, transformation leadership technique promotes employee consideration. Transformation leaders care about each employee and are often viewed as advisors and teachers. Schuh, Zhang and Tian (2013)have determined that there is a positive correlation between the behavior of  managers and employee results. The success of an organization is directly correlated with an increase in level of performance, efficiency, and improvement. A transformational leadership technique applied would have assisted in motivating Fred. Jim Reed needs to set goals for employees based on the goal setting theory to motivate employees. Performance is indirectly affected by setting goals. According to Latham & Locke (2002), there are several key factors to ensure that the goals are effective. Employees must possess the skills and knowledge to achieve the goal g iven. A learning goal should be set when the employee lacks the knowledge to obtain the goal. The employee needs to be committed to the goal. To ensure that an employee is committed, the goal must be important and deemed as achievable to the employee. Its neccassary that an employee feels committed to achieving the goal for the level of performance to be affected. (Bateman, Barry, 2012) One important factor that facilitates goal commitment is the belief that the individual are able to attain the goal. (Locke, Latham, 2002). Managers need to give the employee feedback, to keep the current on their achievements. Employees that learn they are below their goal usually escalate their determination or adjust their strategy to ensure they achieve their goal. Locke and Latham (2002) suggest that when feedback allows performance to be tracked in relation to one’s goal, goal setting is more effective. When employees realize that they are not on track to accomplish their, they will work harder to increase level of performance. (Tamemag, OHora, Maglieri 2013) If employees are unaware of their progress, they have no way of knowing that change is needed in their performance. The manager is also responsible for ensuring that the employee has all necessary resources to achieve their goal. The implementation of the goal setting theory would have assisted Jim Reed in motivating Fred and could have prevented him from being terminated. Jim Reed needs to base his employee performance review off of the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale. Research has determined one of the most effective ways of evaluating employees is the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale. BARS is technique that evaluates employees based on their level of performance. This scale combines basics from critical incident and graphic rating scale methods.( Hauenstein, Brown, Sinclair, 2010) BARS will assist in managing changes for promotions and helps in addressing poor performance. It allows the ability to evaluate  other programs within the organization. References Ahmed, I., Sultana, I., Paul, S., & Azeem, A. (2013). Employee performance evaluation: a fuzzy approach. International Journal Of Productivity & Performance Management, 62(7), 718-734 Bacha, E., & Walker, S. (2013). The Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and Followers’ Perceptions of Fairness. Journal Of Business Ethics, 116(3), 667-680 Barsky, A. (2008). Understanding the Ethical Cost of Organizational Goal-Setting: A Review and Theory Development. Journal Of Business Ethics, 81(1), 63-81 Bateman, T. S., & Barry, B. (2012). Masters of the long haul: Pursuing long-term work goals. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 33(7), 984-1006 Ganster, D. C., Kiersch, C. E., Marsh, R. E., & Bowen, A. (2011). Performance-Based Rewards and Work Stress. Journal Of Organizational Behavior Management, 31(4), 221-235. Hauenstein, N. A., Brown, R. D., & Sinclair, A. L. (2010). BARS and Those Mysterious, Missing Middle Anchors. Journal Of Business & Psychology, 25(4), 663-672. Kacma r, K., Carlson, D. S., & Harris, K. J. (2013). Interactive Effect of Leaders’ Influence Tactics and Ethical Leadership on Work Effort and Helping Behavior. Journal Of Social Psychology, 153(5), 577-597. Latham, G. P. (2004). The motivational benefits of goal-setting. Academy Of Management Executive, 18(4), 126-129 Locke, E.A.,&Latham, G.P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717. Pryor, M. G., Singleton, L. P., Taneja, S., & Humphreys, J. H. (2010). Workplace fun and its correlates: A conceptual inquiry. International Journal of Management, 27(2), 294-302. Schuh, S., Zhang, X., & Tian, P. (2013). For the Good or the Bad? Interactive Effects of Transformational Leadership with Moral and Authoritarian Leadership Behaviors. Journal Of Business Ethics, 116(3), 629-640 Tammemagi, T., O’Hora, D., & Maglieri, K. A. (2013). The Effects of a Goal Setting Intervention on Produc tivity and Persistence in an Analogue Work Task. Journal Of Organizational Behavior Management, 33(1), 31-54 Van De Mieroop, D., & Vrolix, E. (2014). A Discourse Analytical Perspective on the Professionalization of the Performance Appraisal Interview. Journal Of Business -Communication, 51(2), 159-182 Whiting, H. J., Kline, T. B., & Sulsky, L. M. (2008). The performance appraisal congruency scale: An assessment of person-environment fit. International Journal Of Productivity And Performance Management, 57(3), 223-236 Yadav, N., Sushil, & Sagar, M. (2014). Revisiting performance measurement and management: deriving linkages with strategic management theories. International Journal Of Business Performance Management, 15(2), 87-105 Zhu, Y., & Akhtar, S. (2014). How transformational leadership influences follower helping behavior: The role of trust and prosocial motivation. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 35

Marginalized Indian women in Inner Courtyard Essay

Inner Courtyard is a large compilation of short stories which is basically based upon the female issues in particular subjugation under the patriarchal order. The stories are written by women about women hailing from all corners of India and Pakistan – Assam to Kerala and Pakistan to Bengal. With the title of the collection, it gives readers an apparent impression about women’s freedom radius is only the inner courtyard of house. So is in the Vedas, the Gita and other Hindu religious scriptures, women are posed as the beings of house, crossing the threshold of house is rigorously outlawed. Equality between sexes is beyond imagination. Education remained a dream for the women and the conception of human beings as morally and intellectually capable of being educated and civilized is refused, and the conviction of the moral and intellectual advancement of humankind would result in greater happiness for everybody is deliberately sidetracked. This and many more lifeblood threads are far stretched and inconsiderate with regard to women and their rights. The book introduces with the first story highlighting this very theme. The editor of the book Laxmi Holmstrom brings out a fabulous collection of short stories from very diverse walks of life dealing each of the stories with single theme of women being marginalized, harassed, humiliated – female discrimination. In this line, many stories are powerful on their own; most have some element that reflects on the position of the society. Male ascendancy is always at honour while female’s is at stake. There is a vast disparity between an Indian woman and that of the developed nations across the world. The female honour and rights rest upon the basics of respective nations’ culture, in this respect India as a nation of strong and prehistoric culture bound by the religious scriptures cited above abandon women lamenting every moment. Their identity is always subject to the male mercy than that of the natural human rights. They are left pondering over the negligible status in the Indian set up as in Revenge Herself; the Tatri; a Brahmin woman of lowest strata in Brahmin community in Kerala, mothers in Girls, Summer Vacation, My Beloved Charioteer and Her Mother or even Sakina of The Meeting. The First Party is also an analogous illustration which encounters the husband’s vanity being modern and wise person while his wife an odd one out in the party. The first story Revenge Herself by Lalitambika Antarjanam in the collection is a powerful tale of a fallen Nambudiri woman of the 19th century. Her name itself has become a synonym for shameful among the patriarchal Nambudiri. According to the Tatri traditional, such woman’s life is giving away herself to husband in everything without any self for herself. So does she, she marries a man whom she offers herself in order â€Å"to please him in his taste of sex with the same attention I have for his taste for food†. But one point of time, he disregards her for other women and leaves her. Further he even brings a prostitute into the house and asks to become like her, â€Å"If you could be like her, I might like you better†. This results in her rebellion to revenge against her husband. She leaves his house, sets out to become a whore, working hard to learn how to please a man and eventually becomes an admired courtesan and one day her husband visits her then she reveals herself as the same Tatri; his wife who he has expected to become like a whore. In this case who would Tatri have teamed up for executing her rebellion? Society has so trained its peers that it would be impossible for anyone to entertain even remotely the ideas that she puts into execution. Summer Vacation by Kamala Das is a sweet childhood story narrated by Muthassi (grandmother) whom she visits alone. Her father drops her off at the station of Muthassi’s place. Vaidehi Akku is a story of Akku; a husbandless daughter of the patriarchal family. She exposes herself wherever her beauty can be exhibited by wearing new saris and jewelry at weddings or whatever which seems like a social objection in terms of the cultural and conservative norms. The other major story of the book is Girls by Mrinal Pande it is about three sisters and their mother who is pregnant for the fourth time for a son. They go to her Nani’s (maternal grandmother) for having the baby while their father stays back. At the outset itself, the mother refrains with, â€Å"I hope it is a boy this time. It will relieve me of the nuisance of going through another pregnancy†. Even the Nani prays god for protecting her honour so that at the fourth time she would take a son back from her parents’ home. Taking the thread of Nani, neighbour comments that the last time her skin had a pinkish tinge, now it is yellow; it is sure to be a son. Another feature of the story shares the issue with marginalization in the family, this relates to the masi of the sisters. She complains about her endurance in the house and put to work as a dog so is duly responded by all women. In continuance of the first issue of gender discrimination, the following statement carries serious social consideration when their father assures that there is a bright star in the sky and they work hard they can become anything they want to just as Dhruva star, the author in the girl’s character asks, â€Å"But I can’t become a boy, can I? † This marks grave place in girls’/women’s hearts and pains for longer or perhaps lifelong. In case of the girl in the story, the girl rebels at the occasion of Ashtami (kanyakumari) puja calling the society if they do not love girls they should not pretend to worship them either. This story illustrates the scenario of a male dominating world and how female gender is subjugated. The opening introduces characters of the story. Despite the fact that how the story is set in a male dominating there is very little to mention of the male gender. The first sentence is bold and exasperated, desensitized mother who thinks that girls have no visage and always looks forward to the boys. Yellow Fish by Ambai – a simple two page story compares the torture a fish feeling on being tossed out of the sea to the anxiety of a woman’s feelings. The story shares any Indian woman’s feelings and her freedom of choice and life is at the patriarchal order. The next finest story of the collection is Ismat Chughtai’s Chauthi ka Jaura. The greatest mission of the Siddiqui in life is to provide a husband for the elder daughter Naseema who is not gifted in matters of health or features. She is frail and un-voluptuous and has a thin hair. When the daughter’s cousin comes to stay with them for some time as part of his professional training, it proves to be a godsend to them. They begin plotting to arrange the cousin’s interest in the elder daughter but instead, the younger and more daring daughter is sent as the messenger with the proposition. Due to this circumstantial misunderstanding, the cousin agrees to marry, but with the younger sister, without knowledge of the fact, the ladies of the house rejoice. The cousin can no longer control himself and grabs the younger girl. The elder daughter commits suicide at that. After some time, the ladies continue to stitch the Chautha ka Jaura while the younger daughter sits and looks at them without response and careless. Another beautiful story is the First Party by Attia Hossain which depicts in marvelous manner the conventional or orthodox women being put to stake at the cost of sophistication and modern life traits. The woman in the story is just married and taken to a modern party to be introduced wherein all sophisticated people gather and enjoy, drink, eat and dance with their or different partners. The woman is not used to it though she hails from an equally affluent family. She feels embarrassed among the people involved in partying. Being pressed by her husband and others, she refuses to involve but keep sitting aside with a glass in hand. At such demeanor, he feels being humiliated and dishonoured having such unrefined and orthodox wife as the partying people laugh at his wife. Should education, if imparted to women, not play major and vital contribution in women’s life in totality as in the case of this woman of the First Party? Or who should be responsible for her being orthodox and traditional, respecting the culture which in many terms is treasured the patriarchal order or the women or even the culture itself? The Meeting by Shama Fatehally also comes out with similar male mindset in the Indian social set up. The protagonist of the story; a Muslim unmarried girl is given a marriage proposal which incredibly unexpected for Sakina who is so fat like ‘elephantine’ and nothing in looks to mention. She is nostalgic by the thought of the proposal. She is apprehensive about the person to be ‘a real man’. It gives way out to dreaming about the boy to be a handsome person like a dream hero etc. Her father criticises her for daydreaming. True to it, it proves to be a foil to her dream as her partner is not a boy but a middle aged man. Father forgets that a human being dreams and marriage of either female or male is dreamt about the partner. A general question can be posed to the society, should the women looking ugly or whatever not have right to dreaming like the counterparts in boys and men who may be equally looking ugly or so. If men hold the right, women should also possess. Shashi Deshpande’s My Beloved Charioteer and Mahasweta Devi’s Dopdi picturise the similar stories of women being victimised at every stage of life whether as a girl, married woman, mother or even old woman. Grandmother in the former story is a sheer victim of the patriarchal order even before her marriage till her husband’s death. She feels envious at her daughter’s happy married life and when her affliction for her dead husband for whom she gives up her own and her daughter’s life. It is a shock to the readers. The latter story deals with the extreme brutality of human beings towards the woman. It relates to Mahabharata’s Draupadi on how she was humiliated publicly which added to the pride of the then men folk. All this went for no fault of Draupadi. This cruelty ever since continues witnessing and spreading the message. Dopdi of this story is a tribal woman revolts against the society at large but beaten by the treachery of the militancy and raped inhumanly. L. Vishwapriya’s the Library Girl is an impressive story and only optimistic story of the book where woman is honoured and let free to read and roam around the town though a Muslim girl. But it does keep the thrust of dishonoring the girl as she comes of age. She is put into golden cage; a Persian robe (burqa). She thinks the robe adding beauty to her personality but hidden it in the guise of the robe. Her budding beauty is hidden from the malicious eyes about which she is unaware. The book offers both detailed argumentation and passionate eloquence in opposition to the social inequalities commonly imposed upon women by a patriarchal culture. Just as in revolutionary Lalitambika Antarjanam defends the emancipation of women on utilitarian grounds. The legal subordination of one sex to another is immoral in itself and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be replaced by a system of perfect equality, admitting no power and privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other. Women are brought up to act as if they were weak, emotional, docile – a traditional prejudice. If tried equality, the results can be seen benefitting to individual women. They would be free of the unhappiness of being told what to do by men. And there are benefits for society at large doubling the mass of mental faculties available for the higher service of humanity. The ideas and potential of half the population would be liberated, producing a great effect on human development. These marginalised women have today set their feet on all fields and corners of life with regard to education and professional assignments. A long way witnesses many such destinations, if she is equal and free.